44  Research: Concept and types; Research designs

44.1 Concept of Research

Research is “a systematic investigation aimed at discovering, interpreting and revising facts, events, theories and applications”. Clifford Woody’s classic definition runs: research is “defining and redefining problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting, organising and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions, and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated hypotheses”. The word research literally means “to search again” — a continuous, critical, and creative pursuit of new knowledge. In business and management research, the goal is to generate evidence for decision-making — both at the level of theory (pure / fundamental research) and at the level of practice (applied research).

44.2 Objectives of Research

TipSix Objectives
  • Exploratory — to gain familiarity with a phenomenon.
  • Descriptive — to portray accurately the characteristics of a particular situation.
  • Diagnostic — to determine the frequency with which something occurs.
  • Hypothesis-testing — to test a causal relationship.
  • Predictive — to forecast future occurrence.
  • Action / Evaluative — to evaluate the effectiveness of a programme.

44.3 Types of Research

TipTypes of Research
Basis Categories
Purpose Pure / Fundamental · Applied
Method Descriptive · Analytical · Experimental
Inquiry Quantitative · Qualitative · Mixed
Reasoning Inductive · Deductive
Setting Field · Laboratory · Simulation
Time Cross-sectional · Longitudinal
Approach Empirical · Conceptual · Historical

44.4 Steps in the Research Process

TipEight-Step Research Process
  1. Identify and formulate the research problem.
  2. Review of literature — what is already known.
  3. Formulation of hypothesis (where applicable).
  4. Research design — blueprint.
  5. Data collection — primary and secondary.
  6. Data analysis — descriptive and inferential.
  7. Interpretation and reporting.
  8. Generalisation and theory-building / action recommendations.

44.5 Research Design — Concept

A research design is “the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure” (Selltiz et al.). It is the blueprint for the entire research, specifying what data to collect, from whom, how, and how to analyse it.

44.6 Types of Research Design

TipFour Major Research Designs
Design Purpose Methods Hypothesis?
Exploratory Discover ideas; familiarise with topic Literature review, expert interviews, focus groups, secondary data Generates hypothesis
Descriptive Describe characteristics or functions; what, when, where, how Surveys, observation, panel, case-study Tests hypothesis (typically)
Diagnostic Identify causes / frequency / correlates Surveys, correlation studies Tests hypothesis
Experimental / Causal Establish cause-effect; manipulate IV, measure DV Laboratory and field experiments; RCTs Tests causal hypothesis

44.6.1 Experimental Designs

TipCommon Experimental Designs
  • Pre-experimental — one-group pre-test post-test; weakest internal validity.
  • True experimental — random assignment to treatment / control; pre-test and post-test.
  • Quasi-experimental — no random assignment; common in social science.
  • Randomised Control Trial (RCT) — gold standard for causal inference.
  • Factorial design — multiple IVs interacting.
  • Latin square — controls two extraneous variables.
  • Completely Randomised Design (CRD), Randomised Block Design (RBD).

44.7 Internal vs External Validity

TipTwo Validities
Validity Question
Internal Does the treatment actually cause the effect in the sample?
External Can the findings be generalised to other settings, times, people?

44.7.1 Threats to Internal Validity

History, maturation, testing, instrumentation, regression to mean, selection bias, mortality, diffusion of treatment.

44.8 Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

TipQualitative vs Quantitative
Dimension Qualitative Quantitative
Data Words, images, observations Numbers
Sample Small, purposive Large, representative
Analysis Coding, thematic, narrative Statistical
Aim Understand, interpret, explore Test, generalise, predict
Methods Interviews, focus groups, ethnography, case study Surveys, experiments, secondary data

44.9 Hypothesis

A hypothesis is “a tentative proposition relating two or more variables, capable of being tested empirically”. Null hypothesis (H₀) is the default — no effect, no difference; alternative (H₁) is what the researcher wants to demonstrate.

TipCharacteristics of a Good Hypothesis
  • Clear and precise.
  • Testable — must be capable of empirical verification.
  • Specific — variables clearly defined.
  • Related to existing theory.
  • Consistent with known facts.
  • Simple and parsimonious.

flowchart LR
  RD[Research Design] --> E[Exploratory]
  RD --> D[Descriptive]
  RD --> DI[Diagnostic]
  RD --> EX[Experimental / Causal]
  EX --> P[Pre-experimental]
  EX --> T[True experimental]
  EX --> Q[Quasi-experimental]
  EX --> F[Factorial]
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

NoteDistractor warning

PYQs ask: exploratory research is for idea-generation — it does not test a hypothesis. Descriptive and causal tests hypotheses.

44.10 Practice Questions

Q 01AuthorEasy

The definition of research as "defining and redefining problems, formulating hypotheses, …" is by:

  • AKothari
  • BClifford Woody
  • CGoode and Hatt
  • DSelltiz
View solution
Correct Option: B
**Clifford Woody**'s classic definition.
Q 02Pure vs AppliedEasy

Research that aims at *generalising theoretical knowledge* without immediate practical use is:

  • AApplied
  • BPure / Fundamental
  • CDiagnostic
  • DExploratory
View solution
Correct Option: B
**Pure / Fundamental** research extends theory.
Q 03DesignMedium

Match each design with its primary purpose:

Design Purpose
(i) Exploratory (a) Describe characteristics
(ii) Descriptive (b) Establish cause-effect
(iii) Causal / Experimental (c) Generate ideas / hypotheses
  • A(i)-(c), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(b)
  • B(i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c)
  • C(i)-(b), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(a)
  • D(i)-(c), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(a)
View solution
Correct Option: A
Exploratory — ideas; Descriptive — describe; Causal — cause-effect.
Q 04RCTMedium

The "gold standard" for establishing cause-effect is:

  • ACase study
  • BRandomised Control Trial (RCT)
  • CFocus group
  • DDocument analysis
View solution
Correct Option: B
**RCT** with random assignment, control and treatment groups.
Q 05ValidityMedium

**Internal validity** addresses:

  • AWhether findings can be generalised
  • BWhether the treatment caused the effect in the sample
  • CSampling errors
  • DStatistical power
View solution
Correct Option: B
Internal — causal validity within the sample.
Q 06HypothesisMedium

A good hypothesis must be:

  • ATestable, specific, related to theory
  • BVague and broad
  • CIndependent of theory
  • DAlways quantitative
View solution
Correct Option: A
A good hypothesis: testable, specific, theory-related, parsimonious.
Q 07Cross vs LongMedium

A study comparing brand attitudes of 18-25 and 26-35 age groups *at the same point in time* is:

  • ALongitudinal
  • BCross-sectional
  • CCohort
  • DTime series
View solution
Correct Option: B
**Cross-sectional** — single time point; longitudinal — over time.
Q 08QualitativeMedium

Which is **not** typically a qualitative method?

  • AFocus group discussion
  • BIn-depth interview
  • CEthnography
  • DSurvey with 1,000 respondents using Likert scale
View solution
Correct Option: D
Large-sample Likert survey is *quantitative*; the others are qualitative.
Q 09NullEasy

The *null hypothesis* (H₀) typically:

  • AStates the effect to be proved
  • BDefault: no effect / no difference / no relationship
  • CCannot be tested
  • DEqual to H₁
View solution
Correct Option: B
**Null** = no effect; alternative H₁ is what researcher tests.
Q 10ExploratoryMedium

**Exploratory** research is typically used when:

  • AA precise hypothesis exists
  • BThe problem is unclear or new
  • CCause-effect is to be established
  • DLarge surveys are needed
View solution
Correct Option: B
Exploratory → unclear problem; generate hypotheses.
Q 11CRDHard

In a **Completely Randomised Design (CRD)**, treatments are assigned to experimental units:

  • AIn blocks based on a covariate
  • BCompletely at random
  • CBased on a Latin square
  • DBy researcher's preference
View solution
Correct Option: B
CRD = random assignment with no blocking.
Q 12ThreatsHard

Which is **not** a threat to internal validity?

  • AHistory
  • BMaturation
  • CRandom sampling
  • DInstrumentation
View solution
Correct Option: C
Random sampling *enhances* external validity; the others threaten internal validity.
Q 13ReasoningMedium

Moving from *general theory to specific observations* is:

  • AInductive
  • BDeductive
  • CAbductive
  • DReflexive
View solution
Correct Option: B
**Deductive** = general → specific; inductive = specific → general.
Q 14Latin SquareHard

A **Latin Square** design controls for:

  • ANo extraneous variables
  • BOne extraneous variable
  • CTwo extraneous variables
  • DMore than three
View solution
Correct Option: C
**Latin Square** — row and column blocking → controls **two** extraneous variables simultaneously.
Q 15Case studyMedium

A *case study* is typically:

  • AA large-scale quantitative survey
  • BAn in-depth qualitative study of a single or few cases
  • CA randomised experiment
  • DAn observational time series
View solution
Correct Option: B
Case study — deep dive into one or few real-world cases.
Q 16DefinitionMedium

Research design is best described as:

  • AA research method
  • BA blueprint for the entire research process
  • CA specific test of hypothesis
  • DA literature review
View solution
Correct Option: B
Blueprint linking research question, data, analysis.
Q 17QuantitativeEasy

Which is typically a **quantitative** approach?

  • AEthnography
  • BSurvey with closed-ended questions and statistical analysis
  • CFocus group
  • DIn-depth interview
View solution
Correct Option: B
Structured survey → quantitative analysis.
Q 18StepsMedium

Arrange these research steps in order: (i) Hypothesis formulation (ii) Problem identification (iii) Data collection (iv) Interpretation

  • A(ii), (i), (iii), (iv)
  • B(i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
  • C(iv), (iii), (ii), (i)
  • D(iii), (iv), (i), (ii)
View solution
Correct Option: A
Problem → Hypothesis → Data collection → Interpretation.
Q 19ExternalMedium

External validity addresses:

  • AWhether the cause-effect holds in the sample
  • BGeneralisability of findings to other settings / populations
  • CSampling errors
  • DStatistical power
View solution
Correct Option: B
External — generalisability.
Q 20DiagnosticMedium

A study aimed at *identifying causes / frequency / correlates* of a phenomenon is:

  • AExploratory
  • BDiagnostic
  • CPredictive
  • DAction
View solution
Correct Option: B
**Diagnostic** — identifies frequency, correlates, causes.

44.11 Quick Recall

ImportantQuick recall
  • Research (Clifford Woody) — systematic problem-solving + hypothesis testing.
  • Types: Pure vs Applied; Descriptive vs Analytical vs Experimental; Quantitative vs Qualitative; Inductive vs Deductive; Cross-sectional vs Longitudinal.
  • Eight steps: Problem → Lit Review → Hypothesis → Design → Data Collection → Analysis → Interpretation → Generalisation.
  • Research Design = blueprint (Selltiz).
  • Four major designs: Exploratory (idea-gen), Descriptive (characteristics), Diagnostic (frequency / correlates), Experimental / Causal (cause-effect, RCT).
  • Experimental designs: CRD, RBD, Latin Square (controls 2 nuisance variables), factorial.
  • Internal validity — causation in sample; External validity — generalisability.
  • Threats to internal validity: history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, regression-to-mean, selection, mortality.
  • Hypothesis: testable, specific, theory-related. H₀ = no effect; H₁ = alternative.