flowchart TB P[1. Problem<br/>formulation] --> L[2. Literature<br/>review] L --> H[3. Hypothesis<br/>formulation] H --> D[4. Research design] D --> S[5. Sample design] S --> C[6. Data collection] C --> A[7. Data analysis] A --> T[8. Hypothesis testing] T --> G[9. Generalisation and<br/>interpretation] G --> R[10. Report writing] R --> F[11. Feedback and<br/>follow-up] style P fill:#FFEBEE,stroke:#C62828 style F fill:#E8F5E9,stroke:#2E7D32
43 Research: Concept and Designs
43.1 Meaning of Research
Research is the systematic investigation undertaken to discover new facts or to verify and test old facts. C.R. Kothari’s definition is widely cited: research is “an art of scientific investigation … a careful investigation or inquiry, especially through the search for new facts in any branch of knowledge” (kothari2019?). P.M. Cook called it “an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings”.
Three working ideas anchor the field:
- Research is systematic — it follows a planned procedure.
- It is objective — guided by evidence, not opinion.
- It is purposive — directed at a specific question.
43.2 Objectives of Research
TipFour Classical Objectives of Research
| Objective | Working content | Type of research |
|---|---|---|
| Exploration | Gain familiarity with a phenomenon | Exploratory / formulative |
| Description | Portray accurately characteristics of a population | Descriptive |
| Diagnosis | Determine frequency or association | Diagnostic |
| Hypothesis-testing | Test causal relationships | Causal / experimental |
43.3 Types of Research
TipMajor Classifications of Research
| Basis | Categories |
|---|---|
| Application | Pure / fundamental vs Applied / action |
| Objective | Exploratory, Descriptive, Diagnostic, Experimental |
| Inquiry mode | Quantitative vs Qualitative |
| Concept of research | Conceptual vs Empirical |
| Time | Cross-sectional vs Longitudinal |
| Methodology | Historical, Survey, Case-study, Experimental, Analytical |
| Reasoning | Inductive vs Deductive |
43.4 The Research Process
Kothari’s eleven-step research process (kothari2019?):
43.5 Research Problem
A research problem is a clearly stated question or issue requiring investigation. Selker and Phillips identify five common sources: theory and literature, replication of past studies, personal experience, real-world problems, and consultation with experts.
A good research problem must be: clear, researchable, significant, ethical, and feasible (within the researcher’s time, skill and resources).
43.6 Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between variables that the research is designed to test.
TipTwo Hypotheses Tested in Statistics
| Hypothesis | Statement | Symbol |
|---|---|---|
| Null hypothesis | No effect, no difference | \(H_0\) |
| Alternative hypothesis | There is an effect, a difference | \(H_1\) or \(H_a\) |
A good hypothesis is clear, specific, testable, related to existing theory, free from value judgements.
43.7 Research Design — Meaning
A research design is the blueprint of the research project. It specifies the what, where, when, how of the inquiry — the framework within which data are collected and analysed.
TipFive Components of a Research Design
| Component | Content |
|---|---|
| Sampling design | Population, sample size, selection method |
| Observational design | Conditions of observation |
| Statistical design | Number of observations, analysis plan |
| Operational design | Step-by-step procedures |
| Time design | Cross-sectional vs longitudinal |
43.8 Types of Research Design
TipFour Types of Research Design
| Design | Purpose | Method |
|---|---|---|
| Exploratory | Develop hypotheses; gain familiarity | Literature survey, expert opinion, focus groups |
| Descriptive | Describe characteristics; “what is” | Survey, observation, case study |
| Diagnostic | Determine frequency or association | Cross-sectional surveys |
| Experimental | Test causal hypotheses; “what causes what” | Controlled experiments with treatment and control |
43.9 Experimental Designs
Experimental research designs vary in their control over extraneous variables.
TipMajor Experimental Designs
| Design | Working content |
|---|---|
| Pre-experimental | One-group pre-test post-test; weakest control |
| True experimental | Random assignment; treatment and control |
| Quasi-experimental | No random assignment; matched groups |
| Factorial design | Multiple independent variables and their interactions |
| Completely Randomised Design (CRD) | Treatments randomly assigned |
| Randomised Block Design (RBD) | Treatments randomised within blocks |
| Latin Square Design (LSD) | Controls for two sources of variation |
R.A. Fisher’s Design of Experiments (1935) gave the field its modern foundation, introducing randomisation, replication, and local control as the three principles of valid experimentation.
43.10 Qualitative vs Quantitative Research
TipQuantitative vs Qualitative Research
| Dimension | Quantitative | Qualitative |
|---|---|---|
| Goal | Measure, test, predict | Understand, interpret |
| Data | Numerical | Words, images, observations |
| Logic | Deductive | Inductive |
| Approach | Hypothesis-testing | Theory-building |
| Tools | Statistics, surveys, experiments | Interviews, focus groups, ethnography |
| Sample | Larger, randomised | Smaller, purposive |
| Analysis | Statistical | Thematic / content / narrative |
43.11 Significance of Research
- Inculcates scientific thinking and discipline.
- Generates new knowledge and theory.
- Guides policy and managerial decisions.
- Solves real-world problems — operations, marketing, social.
- Promotes innovation and economic development.
43.12 Exam-Pattern MCQs
NoteEight-question set
Q1. Which of the following is not one of Fisher’s three principles of experimental design?
A. Randomisation B. Replication C. Local control D. Subjective interpretation
Answer: D. Fisher’s principles are Randomisation, Replication, Local Control (the RRL).
Q2. Match each research-design type with its purpose:
| Type | Purpose | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| (i) | Exploratory | (a) | Test causal hypothesis |
| (ii) | Descriptive | (b) | Develop initial hypotheses |
| (iii) | Experimental | (c) | Determine frequency or association |
| (iv) | Diagnostic | (d) | Describe characteristics of a population |
A. (i)-(b), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(c) B. (i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(d) C. (i)-(c), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(d) D. (i)-(d), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(a)
Answer: A.
Q3. A good research problem must be:
A. Vague to allow flexibility B. Researchable, significant, and feasible C. Restricted to topics with a single right answer D. Always quantitative
Answer: B. Selker-Phillips and Kothari list clear, researchable, significant, ethical, feasible as criteria.
Q4. Match the experimental design with its content:
| Design | Content | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| (i) | Completely Randomised Design | (a) | Two sources of variation controlled |
| (ii) | Randomised Block Design | (b) | Treatments randomised within blocks |
| (iii) | Latin Square Design | (c) | Treatments randomly assigned to all units |
| (iv) | Factorial Design | (d) | Multiple independent variables and their interactions |
A. (i)-(c), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(d) B. (i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(d) C. (i)-(b), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(d), (iv)-(a) D. (i)-(d), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(c)
Answer: A.
Q5. Which of the following is qualitative research?
A. Survey of 1,000 consumers’ purchase frequency B. In-depth interviews exploring consumer motivations C. Linear regression of sales on advertising spend D. Hypothesis test on mean income difference
Answer: B. In-depth interviews collect non-numerical, narrative data — qualitative.
Q6. Match each pair of opposing concepts:
| Concept | Opposite | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| (i) | Pure research | (a) | Longitudinal |
| (ii) | Cross-sectional | (b) | Applied research |
| (iii) | Inductive | (c) | Quantitative |
| (iv) | Qualitative | (d) | Deductive |
A. (i)-(b), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(d), (iv)-(c) B. (i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(d) C. (i)-(c), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(a) D. (i)-(d), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(b)
Answer: A.
Q7. Arrange the following steps of the research process in correct order:
- Hypothesis formulation
- Problem formulation
- Data collection
- Literature review
A. (ii), (iv), (i), (iii) B. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) C. (iii), (iv), (i), (ii) D. (iv), (iii), (ii), (i)
Answer: A. Problem → Literature → Hypothesis → Data collection.
Q8. Match each definition with its proponent:
| Definition | Proponent | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| (i) | “Art of scientific investigation” | (a) | R.A. Fisher |
| (ii) | “Honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts” | (b) | C.R. Kothari |
| (iii) | Three principles of experimental design — randomisation, replication, local control | (c) | P.M. Cook |
A. (i)-(b), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(a) B. (i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c) C. (i)-(c), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(b) D. (i)-(c), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(a)
Answer: A.
ImportantQuick recall
- Research = systematic, objective, purposive inquiry.
- Four objectives: exploration, description, diagnosis, hypothesis-testing.
- Four design types: exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, experimental.
- 11-step process: Problem → Literature → Hypothesis → Design → Sample → Data → Analysis → Test → Generalise → Report → Feedback.
- Hypothesis = tentative testable statement; null \(H_0\) and alternative \(H_1\).
- Fisher’s three principles of experimental design: Randomisation, Replication, Local Control.
- Experimental designs: CRD, RBD, LSD, Factorial; pre / true / quasi-experimental.
- Qualitative: words, inductive, theory-building. Quantitative: numbers, deductive, hypothesis-testing.
- Pure (basic) vs Applied; Conceptual vs Empirical; Cross-sectional vs Longitudinal.