88 Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs): Patents, trademarks and copyrights; Emerging issues in intellectual property

88.1 Concept of IPR

Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) are legal rights granted to creators and owners of intellectual creations for a limited period — to exclude others from making, using, or commercialising their inventions, works, and signs without permission. They are granted under international treaties (Paris 1883, Berne 1886, Rome 1961, TRIPS 1995) and Indian statutes administered by the Office of the Controller General of Patents, Designs & Trade Marks (CGPDTM) under the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce & Industry. India adopted its National IPR Policy in 2016 — slogan “Creative India, Innovative India”.

88.2 Types of IPRs in India

IPRs and Governing Statutes

IPR	Statute	Term
Patent	Patents Act 1970 (amended 2005)	20 years from filing
Trademark	Trade Marks Act 1999	10 years, renewable indefinitely
Copyright	Copyright Act 1957	Life + 60 years (lit/dramatic/musical/artistic)
Design	Designs Act 2000	10 + 5 years
GI	GI Act 1999	10 years, renewable
Plant Variety	PPV&FR Act 2001	15 yrs (crops); 18 yrs (trees & vines)
Layout-Design of IC	SICLD Act 2000	10 years
Trade Secret / Undisclosed Info	Common law (no Act yet)	Indefinite

88.3 Patents (Patents Act 1970, amended 2005)

88.3.1 Patentability (§ 2(1)(j), § 3)

Three Patentability Tests

Novelty — must be new worldwide.
Inventive step (non-obviousness).
Industrial applicability (capable of being made/used).

88.3.2 Non-Patentable Inventions (§ 3)

Frivolous, contrary to natural laws or public order/morality.
Mere discovery of scientific principle or abstract theory.
Mere discovery of new form of a known substance (§ 3(d) — anti-evergreening clause; Novartis v UoI 2013).
Method of agriculture/horticulture.
Medical, surgical, diagnostic or therapeutic methods.
Plants & animals (other than micro-organisms).
Mathematical or business method / computer programme per se.
Atomic energy inventions (§ 4).

88.3.3 Application Process

Patent Process

Provisional / Complete specification → Publication after 18 months → Request for Examination within 48 months → First Examination Report → Grant.
Pre-grant opposition (§ 25(1)) and post-grant opposition (§ 25(2)).
Term — 20 years from filing.
Compulsory licensing (§ 84) — after 3 yrs if not worked / not affordable / not made in India. First CL: Natco v Bayer (Nexavar) 2012.
Patent of Addition, Convention applications, PCT national-phase entry (within 31 months).

88.3.4 India and International Patent Framework

Paris Convention 1883.
PCT 1970 — India joined 1998.
TRIPS 1995 (WTO) — India compliant from 2005.
Budapest Treaty — micro-organism deposits.

88.4 Trademarks (Trade Marks Act 1999)

Trademark Essentials

§ 2(zb) — Mark capable of being graphically represented and of distinguishing goods/services.
Types — Word, Device, Logo, Slogan, Sound, Shape, Smell (limited), Trade dress, Colour combination.
Term — 10 years, renewable indefinitely.
Categories: Conventional, Service, Certification (e.g. ISI, AGMARK), Collective, Well-known.
Classification — Nice Classification (45 classes; 1-34 goods, 35-45 services).
Registers: Part A & Part B abolished — now single register.
Madrid Protocol — India joined 2013 — international registration.

88.4.1 Registration Procedure

Trademark search → application TM-A → examination → publication in Journal → opposition (4 months) → registration → use TM/® symbol.

88.4.2 Infringement & Remedies

Civil (injunction, damages, account of profits), criminal (imprisonment 6 m-3 yrs; fine ₹50k-₹2 L; § 103-104), passing-off (common law).

88.5 Copyrights (Copyright Act 1957)

§ 13(1) — original literary, dramatic, musical, artistic works; cinematograph films; sound recordings.
Computer programmes protected as literary work.
Automatic protection at creation; registration not mandatory but useful as evidence.
Term — Life + 60 years (literary/dramatic/musical/artistic); 60 yrs from publication (films, sound recording, photographs, govt works, anonymous works).
Bundle of rights: reproduction, distribution, performance, adaptation, translation, communication to public, broadcasting.
Moral rights (§ 57) — paternity and integrity (Mannu Bhandari case).
Fair dealing (§ 52) — research, criticism, review, news, teaching.
Statutory licensing (§ 31) and Compulsory licensing.
Copyright Board → IPAB (abolished 2021) → now Commercial Courts / High Courts.
Berne Convention 1886 and Universal Copyright Convention.

88.6 Designs Act 2000

Protects shape, configuration, pattern, ornament, composition of lines/colours applied to articles. Term — 10 + 5 years. Excludes purely functional features.

88.7 Geographical Indications (GI Act 1999)

A GI identifies a good as originating from a particular territory where a quality, reputation, or other characteristic is attributable to that origin (TRIPS Art 22). First Indian GI: Darjeeling Tea (2004). Examples — Banarasi Sarees, Mysore Silk, Tirupati Laddu, Kanchipuram Silk, Basmati (after long battle), Kashmir Saffron, Madhubani Paintings, Pashmina, Champagne (foreign GI), Roquefort (foreign GI).

88.8 Plant Variety & Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR Act 2001)

Protects new, existing, essentially derived, and farmers’ varieties. Farmers’ Right to save, use, sow, exchange, share, or sell seeds (subject to brand-name restrictions).

88.9 Semiconductor Integrated Circuits Layout-Design Act 2000

Protects original layout-designs of IC chips for 10 years.

88.10 Trade Secrets and Confidential Information

No dedicated statute — protected through contract law + common law of confidence (Saltman Engineering principle). DPDP Act 2023 supplements digital data privacy.

88.11 Recent / Emerging Issues

Emerging IP Issues

AI and IP — authorship, inventorship; copyright of AI-generated works.
Biotech & gene editing — patentability of CRISPR; Myriad / Diamond v Chakrabarty.
Traditional Knowledge — TKDL (Traditional Knowledge Digital Library) by CSIR-NISCAIR; prevented foreign patents on neem, haldi, basmati.
Software patenting — limited in India (CRI Guidelines).
Pharma patents and access — § 3(d), compulsory licensing (Bayer 2012).
Open Source, Creative Commons licensing.
Trademark dilution & parody.
NFTs and blockchain IP.
3-D printing piracy.
India’s “National IPR Policy 2016” — 7 objectives; IPR Awareness, IP Generation, Legal & Legislative framework, Administration & Management, Commercialisation, Enforcement & Adjudication, Human Capital Development.
Cell for IPR Promotion & Management (CIPAM).
Start-up India IP fast-track — 80 % patent fee rebate, 50 % TM fee rebate.
IPAB abolished 2021 → IP appeals shifted to commercial courts / High Courts.

flowchart TB
  IP[IPRs] --> Pa[Patents<br/>20 yrs · §3 · §3(d) · §84 CL]
  IP --> Tm[Trademarks<br/>10 yrs renewable · Nice 45 classes]
  IP --> Cp[Copyright<br/>Life + 60 · §52 fair dealing]
  IP --> De[Designs 2000<br/>10+5 yrs]
  IP --> GI[GI 1999<br/>Darjeeling 2004]
  IP --> PP[PPV&FR 2001<br/>Farmers' rights]
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

Distractor warning

PYQ trap: Patent term 20 yrs; TM 10 yrs renewable; Copyright life + 60 yrs; Design 10 + 5; GI 10. §3(d) anti-evergreening — Novartis 2013; First CL — Natco v Bayer 2012.

88.12 Practice Questions

Q 01PatentEasy

Patent term in India:

A7 yrs
B10 yrs
C20 yrs from filing
DLife of inventor + 60

View solution

Correct Option: C

**20 yrs from filing date**.

Q 02TMEasy

Trademark renewable every:

A5 yrs
B7 yrs
C10 yrs
D20 yrs

View solution

Correct Option: C

**10 yrs**, renewable indefinitely.

Q 03CopyrightMedium

Literary copyright lasts:

A20 yrs
B50 yrs from publication
CLife of author + 60 yrs
DPerpetual

View solution

Correct Option: C

**Life + 60 yrs** for literary, dramatic, musical, artistic.

Q 04§ 3(d)Hard

Section 3(d) Patents Act addresses:

ANovelty
BAnti-evergreening
CCompulsory licensing
DPre-grant opposition

View solution

Correct Option: B

**Anti-evergreening** — Novartis v UoI 2013.

Q 05CLMedium

India's first compulsory licence (2012) was issued for:

ANexavar (Bayer)
BRemdesivir
CGlivec
DTamiflu

View solution

Correct Option: A

**Natco v Bayer (Nexavar)** under §84.

Q 06GIMedium

First Indian GI registered:

ABanarasi Saree
BDarjeeling Tea (2004)
CMysore Silk
DBasmati

View solution

Correct Option: B

**Darjeeling Tea — 2004**.

Q 07DesignMedium

Designs are protected for:

A5 + 5 yrs
B10 + 5 yrs
C20 yrs
DLife + 60

View solution

Correct Option: B

**10 + 5 yrs** (Designs Act 2000).

Q 08TRIPSMedium

TRIPS Agreement is administered by:

AWIPO
BWTO
CUNCTAD
DUNESCO

View solution

Correct Option: B

**WTO 1995**.

Q 09NiceHard

Nice Classification has how many classes?

A34
B45
C50
D100

View solution

Correct Option: B

**45 classes** — 1-34 goods, 35-45 services.

Q 10BerneMedium

Berne Convention deals with:

APatents
BCopyrights
CTrademarks
DDesigns

View solution

Correct Option: B

**Berne Convention 1886 — Copyright**.

Q 11ParisMedium

Paris Convention 1883 deals with:

ACopyrights
BIndustrial property (patents, TM, designs)
CPerformance rights
DPlant varieties

View solution

Correct Option: B

**Industrial property — Paris 1883**.

Q 12PPV&FRHard

India's Plant Variety Act was passed in:

A1999
B2000
C2001
D2005

View solution

Correct Option: C

**PPV&FR Act 2001**.

Q 13IPABHard

IPAB was abolished in:

A2017
B2021
C2023
D2019

View solution

Correct Option: B

**Tribunals Reforms 2021** — IPAB abolished; IP appeals to commercial courts / HCs.

Q 14Fair useMedium

Fair dealing in copyright is in:

A§ 13
B§ 52
C§ 14
D§ 57

View solution

Correct Option: B

**§ 52** — fair dealing.

Q 15MoralHard

Author's moral rights are in:

A§ 14
B§ 52
C§ 57
D§ 60

View solution

Correct Option: C

**§ 57** — Right of paternity & integrity.

Q 16Compulsory licenceHard

Compulsory licensing under Patents Act is governed by:

A§ 25
B§ 84
C§ 138
D§ 60

View solution

Correct Option: B

**§ 84**.

Q 17TKDLHard

TKDL is maintained by:

ADPIIT
BCSIR-NISCAIR
CRBI
DWIPO

View solution

Correct Option: B

**Traditional Knowledge Digital Library** by CSIR with AYUSH.

Q 18NovartisHard

Novartis case (2013) was about:

ATrade mark dilution
BPatent — § 3(d) Glivec
CCopyright
DDesign

View solution

Correct Option: B

**Novartis v UoI 2013** — Imatinib (Glivec) — anti-evergreening upheld.

Q 19PolicyMedium

India's National IPR Policy was adopted in:

A2010
B2014
C2016
D2020

View solution

Correct Option: C

**2016** — "Creative India, Innovative India".

Q 20MatchMedium

Match IPR with statute:

	IPR		Statute
(i)	Patent	(a)	Copyright Act 1957
(ii)	Trademark	(b)	Patents Act 1970
(iii)	Copyright	(c)	GI Act 1999
(iv)	GI	(d)	Trade Marks Act 1999

A(i)-(b), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(c)
B(i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(d)
C(i)-(c), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(a)
D(i)-(d), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(b)

View solution

Correct Option: A

Direct mapping.

88.13 Quick Recall

Quick recall

Statutes: Patents 1970 (TM 2005), Trade Marks 1999, Copyright 1957, Designs 2000, GI 1999, PPV&FR 2001, SICLD 2000.
Terms: Patent 20 yr, TM 10 yr renewable, Copyright life + 60, Design 10+5, GI 10.
Patentability: novelty + inventive step + industrial applicability; §3(d) anti-evergreening (Novartis 2013); §84 CL — first Natco v Bayer 2012.
Trademark: Nice 45 classes; Madrid Protocol since 2013; § 103-104 criminal.
Copyright: automatic, §52 fair dealing, §57 moral rights.
GI: Darjeeling Tea 2004 — first; Banarasi, Mysore Silk, Kanchipuram, Basmati (post-battle), Kashmir Saffron.
International: Paris 1883, Berne 1886, TRIPS 1995 (WTO), PCT (India 1998), Madrid (2013), Budapest.
India NIPR Policy 2016; IPAB abolished 2021; TKDL (CSIR-NISCAIR).