58  Personality; Perception; Attitudes; Emotions; Group dynamics; Power and politics; Conflict and negotiation; Stress management

58.1 Organisational Behaviour — The Eight Themes

Organisational Behaviour (OB) is “the study and application of knowledge about how people, individuals, and groups act in organisations” (Newstrom & Davis). This topic covers eight micro- and meso-OB themes: personality, perception, attitudes, emotions, group dynamics, power and politics, conflict and negotiation, and stress management. Each addresses a different layer of the human-in-organisation puzzle — what individuals are like, how they see the world, how they feel and react, how they behave in groups, how power and conflict play out, and how they cope with pressure. Together they form the psychological core of HRM and management practice.

58.2 Personality

Personality is “the characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and behaving that makes a person distinctive” (Allport). It is relatively stable but not unchanging.

58.2.1 Determinants

  • Heredity — genetic and biological.
  • Environment — culture, family, social.
  • Situation — the specific context.

58.2.2 Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN)

The most accepted modern model — Five-Factor Model (Costa & McCrae):

TipBig Five (OCEAN)
  • Openness to experience — imaginative, curious.
  • Conscientiousness — organised, dependable, achievement-oriented.
  • Extraversion — outgoing, sociable, assertive.
  • Agreeableness — cooperative, trusting.
  • Neuroticism — emotional instability vs stability.

Conscientiousness is the best single predictor of job performance across roles.

58.2.3 Other Personality Models

TipOther Personality Frameworks
  • MBTI (Myers-Briggs) — 16 types based on four dichotomies: E/I, S/N, T/F, J/P.
  • Type A vs Type B (Friedman & Rosenman) — competitive, time-urgent vs relaxed.
  • Locus of Control (Rotter) — internal vs external.
  • Self-monitoring (Snyder) — high vs low.
  • Machiavellianism — willingness to manipulate.
  • Big Three (Eysenck) — Extraversion, Neuroticism, Psychoticism.
  • DISC — Dominance, Influence, Steadiness, Conscientiousness.

58.3 Perception

Perception is “the process by which individuals organise and interpret sensory inputs to give meaning to their environment” (Robbins). Different people see the same situation differently — explaining many workplace misunderstandings.

58.3.1 Factors Influencing Perception

TipThree Sets of Factors
  • Perceiver — attitudes, motives, interests, experience, expectations.
  • Target — novelty, motion, sound, size, background.
  • Situation — time, social setting, work setting.

58.3.2 Perceptual Errors

TipCommon Perceptual Errors
  • Selective perception.
  • Halo effect (one trait colours all).
  • Stereotyping.
  • Projection — attributing one’s own characteristics to others.
  • Attribution error — over-attributing others’ actions to disposition; one’s own to situation.
  • Contrast effect.
  • First impression / Primacy.
  • Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect — Rosenthal).

58.4 Attitudes

Attitudes are evaluative statements about objects, people or events — favourable or unfavourable. Three components (ABC model):

TipThree Components of Attitude
Component Content
Affective (A) Feeling or emotion
Behavioural (B) Intention to act
Cognitive (C) Belief or opinion

58.4.1 Major Job Attitudes

TipMajor Job Attitudes
  • Job satisfaction.
  • Job involvement.
  • Organisational commitment (affective, continuance, normative — Meyer & Allen).
  • Employee engagement.
  • Perceived organisational support (POS).

58.4.2 Cognitive Dissonance — Festinger (1957)

Leon Festinger — cognitive dissonance occurs when a person holds two inconsistent attitudes or attitudes inconsistent with behaviour, motivating change.

58.5 Emotions and Moods

Emotions are intense feelings directed at someone or something (short, specific cause). Moods are less intense, more enduring feelings without a clear cause.

TipSix Basic Emotions (Ekman)
  • Anger
  • Fear
  • Sadness
  • Happiness
  • Disgust
  • Surprise

Emotional Intelligence (EI) — coined by Mayer & Salovey (1990), popularised by Daniel Goleman (1995). Five components: self-awareness, self-management/regulation, motivation, empathy, social skills.

Emotional Labour — managing emotions as part of the job (e.g., flight attendants, customer-service staff) — Arlie Hochschild (1983).

58.6 Group Dynamics

Group dynamics is the study of how groups form, develop, and influence behaviour.

58.6.1 Tuckman’s Stages of Group Development (1965)

TipTuckman’s Five Stages
  1. Forming — orientation, polite, uncertain.
  2. Storming — conflict over roles and goals.
  3. Norming — consensus and cohesion emerges.
  4. Performing — focused on task; effective.
  5. Adjourning — disbanding (added 1977).

58.6.2 Group Cohesiveness

Determinants of cohesion: size, similarity, success, time spent together, external threats.

58.6.3 Groupthink — Janis (1972)

Irving Janis’s Groupthink — when desire for harmony in a group overrides realistic appraisal — leads to defective decisions (Bay of Pigs, Challenger disaster).

TipGroupthink Symptoms
  • Illusion of invulnerability.
  • Pressure on dissenters.
  • Self-censorship.
  • Illusion of unanimity.
  • Stereotyping outsiders.

58.6.4 Formal vs Informal Groups

  • Formal — created by management for specific tasks.
  • Informal — emerge spontaneously based on friendship, common interests.

58.7 Power and Politics

58.7.1 Sources / Bases of Power (French & Raven 1959)

TipFrench and Raven’s Five Bases of Power
Power Source
Legitimate Position
Reward Ability to give rewards
Coercive Ability to punish
Expert Knowledge / expertise
Referent Personal charisma / identification

Later added: Informational power. Connection power (network).

58.7.2 Organisational Politics

Political behaviour = activities not part of one’s formal role that influence the distribution of advantages and disadvantages. Includes coalition-building, networking, image management, controlling information, scapegoating.

58.8 Conflict and Negotiation

58.8.1 Conflict — Three Views

TipThree Views of Conflict
  • Traditional — conflict is bad; avoid.
  • Human Relations — conflict is natural and inevitable; can be managed.
  • Interactionist — some conflict (functional / task) is necessary for performance.

58.8.2 Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Modes (1974)

Two dimensions — assertiveness (concern for self) and cooperativeness (concern for others):

TipFive Conflict-Handling Modes
Mode Assertive Cooperative
Competing High Low
Collaborating High High
Compromising Medium Medium
Avoiding Low Low
Accommodating Low High

58.8.3 Negotiation

Two broad strategies: - Distributive (win-lose) — fixed pie; haggling. - Integrative (win-win) — expanding the pie; BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement) is the negotiator’s leverage point.

58.9 Stress Management

Stress is the body’s response to demands or threats. Two types: eustress (positive, motivating) and distress (negative, harmful).

58.9.1 Sources of Stress

TipStressors
  • Environmental — economic, political, technological uncertainty.
  • Organisational — role demands, task demands, interpersonal demands, organisational structure.
  • Personal — family, financial, personality.

58.9.2 Burnout — Maslach (1981)

Christina Maslach — burnout has three dimensions: - Emotional exhaustion. - Depersonalisation / cynicism. - Reduced personal accomplishment.

58.9.3 Coping Strategies

TipCoping Strategies
  • Individual — time management, physical exercise, relaxation, social support, meditation, mindfulness.
  • Organisational — improve selection, goal setting, redesign jobs, employee assistance programmes (EAPs), wellness programmes, role analysis.

flowchart TB
  OB[Individual + Group OB] --> I[Individual]
  OB --> G[Group]
  I --> P[Personality]
  I --> PR[Perception]
  I --> A[Attitudes]
  I --> E[Emotions]
  G --> GD[Group Dynamics<br/>Tuckman / Groupthink]
  G --> PP[Power & Politics]
  G --> CN[Conflict & Negotiation]
  G --> SM[Stress]
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

NoteDistractor warning

PYQs ask: Tuckman’s stages — F-S-N-P-A (Forming-Storming-Norming-Performing-Adjourning). French & Raven’s original five bases of power — Legitimate, Reward, Coercive, Expert, Referent.

58.10 Practice Questions

Q 01Big FiveEasy

The Big Five personality dimensions (OCEAN) include:

  • AOpenness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism
  • BOpenness, Cynicism, Excitement, Apathy, Narcissism
  • CDrive, Diligence, Devotion, Discipline, Dignity
  • DPower, Achievement, Affiliation
View solution
Correct Option: A
**OCEAN** — Costa & McCrae.
Q 02TuckmanMedium

Arrange Tuckman's stages: (i) Norming (ii) Forming (iii) Performing (iv) Storming (v) Adjourning

  • A(ii), (iv), (i), (iii), (v)
  • B(i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
  • C(v), (iv), (iii), (ii), (i)
  • D(ii), (i), (iv), (iii), (v)
View solution
Correct Option: A
**Forming → Storming → Norming → Performing → Adjourning**.
Q 03French-RavenMedium

Five bases of power — Legitimate, Reward, Coercive, Expert, Referent — were given by:

  • AFrench and Raven (1959)
  • BTuckman
  • CGoleman
  • DFestinger
View solution
Correct Option: A
**French & Raven 1959** — *The Bases of Social Power*.
Q 04GolemanMedium

Emotional Intelligence (EI) was popularised by:

  • AMaslow
  • BDaniel Goleman (1995)
  • CBandura
  • DMintzberg
View solution
Correct Option: B
Mayer & Salovey coined; **Goleman 1995** popularised.
Q 05FestingerMedium

Cognitive Dissonance Theory was proposed by:

  • AMaslow
  • BLeon Festinger (1957)
  • CSkinner
  • DBandura
View solution
Correct Option: B
**Festinger 1957** — cognitive dissonance.
Q 06GroupthinkMedium

"Groupthink" was coined by:

  • AIrving Janis
  • BTuckman
  • CLewin
  • DSchein
View solution
Correct Option: A
**Janis (1972)** — desire for harmony overrides realistic appraisal.
Q 07ModesMedium

The five conflict-handling modes are from:

  • AFrench & Raven
  • BThomas & Kilmann (1974)
  • CTuckman
  • DFiedler
View solution
Correct Option: B
**Thomas-Kilmann** — assertiveness × cooperativeness.
Q 08BATNAMedium

BATNA in negotiation stands for:

  • ABest Agreement Through Negotiated Action
  • BBest Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement
  • CBargaining And Tactical Negotiation Alliance
  • DBold Approach To Negotiating Action
View solution
Correct Option: B
**BATNA** — Fisher & Ury, *Getting to Yes*.
Q 09HaloMedium

Halo effect is a:

  • APersonality trait
  • BPerceptual error / bias
  • CConflict mode
  • DPower base
View solution
Correct Option: B
**Halo** — perceptual bias.
Q 10Emotional labourHard

Emotional labour — managing emotions as part of the job — was coined by:

  • AGoleman
  • BArlie Hochschild (1983)
  • CFestinger
  • DTuckman
View solution
Correct Option: B
**Hochschild 1983** — *The Managed Heart*.
Q 11LocusHard

Locus of Control was developed by:

  • ARotter
  • BSnyder
  • CFriedman
  • DEysenck
View solution
Correct Option: A
**Julian Rotter** — internal vs external locus.
Q 12MaslachHard

Burnout's three dimensions — emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, reduced accomplishment — were given by:

  • AChristina Maslach (1981)
  • BSelye
  • CBandura
  • DLewin
View solution
Correct Option: A
**Maslach Burnout Inventory** (1981).
Q 13PygmalionMedium

"Pygmalion effect" / self-fulfilling prophecy is associated with:

  • AMaslow
  • BRosenthal
  • CTuckman
  • DHochschild
View solution
Correct Option: B
**Rosenthal & Jacobson** — *Pygmalion in the Classroom* (1968).
Q 14Type AMedium

Type A personality (competitive, time-urgent) was identified by:

  • AFriedman & Rosenman
  • BCosta & McCrae
  • CCattell
  • DEysenck
View solution
Correct Option: A
**Friedman & Rosenman** — cardiologists; linked Type A to heart disease.
Q 15Conflict viewMedium

The **interactionist** view of conflict argues:

  • AConflict is bad; eliminate it
  • BSome conflict is necessary for performance
  • CConflict is unimportant
  • DConflict is purely interpersonal
View solution
Correct Option: B
**Interactionist** — functional conflict aids performance.
Q 16EkmanHard

Paul Ekman's six universally recognised basic emotions do **not** include:

  • AAnger
  • BSurprise
  • CContempt
  • DSadness
View solution
Correct Option: C
Six original: anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, surprise. **Contempt** was added later.
Q 17EustressMedium

**Eustress** refers to:

  • AHarmful stress
  • BPositive, motivating stress
  • CChronic stress
  • DBurnout
View solution
Correct Option: B
**Eustress** — beneficial; **distress** — harmful (Hans Selye).
Q 18CommitmentHard

Meyer and Allen's three components of organisational commitment do **not** include:

  • AAffective
  • BContinuance
  • CNormative
  • DTransactional
View solution
Correct Option: D
Three components: Affective, Continuance, Normative.
Q 19Personality matchMedium

Match each theorist with the framework:

Theorist Framework
(i) Costa & McCrae (a) Type A/B
(ii) Friedman & Rosenman (b) Locus of Control
(iii) Rotter (c) Five-Factor Model
(iv) Snyder (d) Self-monitoring
  • A(i)-(c), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(d)
  • B(i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(d)
  • C(i)-(b), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(d), (iv)-(a)
  • D(i)-(d), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(a)
View solution
Correct Option: A
Costa-McCrae — Big Five; Friedman-Rosenman — Type A; Rotter — locus; Snyder — self-monitoring.
Q 20AttributionHard

The **fundamental attribution error** is:

  • AOver-attributing one's own behaviour to disposition
  • BOver-attributing others' behaviour to disposition, our own to situation
  • CNo distinction
  • DPure chance
View solution
Correct Option: B
**FAE** — others = dispositional; self = situational (Lee Ross).

58.11 Quick Recall

ImportantQuick recall
  • Personality: Big Five OCEAN (Costa & McCrae); MBTI; Type A/B (Friedman & Rosenman); Locus of Control (Rotter); Self-monitoring (Snyder); Machiavellianism; DISC.
  • Perception errors: selective, halo, stereotyping, projection, fundamental attribution error, contrast, primacy, Pygmalion / self-fulfilling prophecy.
  • Attitudes — ABC components; cognitive dissonance (Festinger 1957).
  • Emotions (Ekman’s six); EI — Mayer-Salovey; Goleman 1995; Emotional labour — Hochschild 1983.
  • Tuckman 1965 — Forming → Storming → Norming → Performing → Adjourning.
  • Groupthink — Janis 1972.
  • Power — French & Raven 1959 five bases: Legitimate, Reward, Coercive, Expert, Referent (+ Informational).
  • Conflict views: Traditional / Human Relations / Interactionist; Thomas-Kilmann 5 modes: Competing, Collaborating, Compromising, Avoiding, Accommodating.
  • Negotiation: Distributive vs Integrative; BATNA (Fisher & Ury).
  • Stress: Eustress vs Distress (Selye); Burnout 3D — Maslach 1981.